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Breadwinner

The breadwinner model is a paradigm of family centered on a breadwinner, 'the member of a family who earns the money to support the others.'[1] Traditionally, the earner works outside the home to provide the family with income and benefits such as health insurance, while the non-earner stays at home and takes care of children and the elderly.

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Since the 1950s, social scientists and feminist theorists have increasingly criticized the gendered division of work and care and the expectation that the breadwinner role should be fulfilled by men. Norwegian government policy has increasingly targeted men as fathers, as a tool of changing gender relations.[2] Recent years have seen a shift in gender norms for the breadwinner role in the U.S. A 2013 Pew Research study found that women were the sole or primary breadwinners in 40% of heterosexual relationships with children.[3]

Rise[edit]

In Britain, the breadwinner model developed among the emerging middle-class towards the end of the industrial revolution in the mid-nineteenth-century. Prior to this, in low-income families, a subsistence wage was paid on the basis of the individual worker's output, with all members of the family expected to contribute to the household upkeep.

There was another side to the transformation of wage relations in mid-19th-century Britain involving two closely related changes: first, a shift in the prevailing wage form, from a joint to an individual payment; and second, a shift in the predominant subsistence norm of a living wage, from a family group's income to the ideal of an adult male-breadwinner wage. This is the notion that the wage earned by a husband ought to be sufficient to support his family without his wife and young children having to work for pay.[4]

The increase in wages among skilled labourers and lower-middle-class workers allowed for a far larger number of families being able to support the entire family unit on one wage, and the breadwinner model became an attainable goal for a far wider proportion of society. Within this model, 'The division of labour in parenting tasks can also be classified as 'caring about' (breadwinning) and 'caring for' (nurturing) children'.[5]

Advantages[edit]

In the United Kingdom, the emergence of the breadwinner norm coincided with and helped to facilitate the removal of children from the workforce.[6] In 1821, approximately 49% of the nation's workforce was under the age of 20. Throughout the century, multiple items of legislation were written in to law limiting the age at which a child could enter work and ensuring mandatory standards of education.[7]

Historically, families that rely on the earning power of one parent have had a lower divorce rate than families where both parents are in gainful employment.[8]

Disadvantages[edit]

One associated disadvantage is that 'male breadwinner regimes make women dependent within marriage cohabitation especially when they have young children'.[9] In societies where the breadwinner model is present, it is common for the non-earner (predominantly women) to have broken career paths, providing unpaid labour to the family or working part-time. This contributes to the fact that, on average, women obtain lower levels of lifetime earnings than men.[9] This income disparity can often lead to an increase in financial insecurity or poverty – predominantly affecting women – if the relationship collapses. Another risk that has been identified with this has been a higher exposure to domestic violence, which has been associated with the non-earner's lack of independent resources.[9]

Effect on gender identity[edit]

As breadwinning has historically been a primary driving force in the male identity many women attempt to switch the traditional hierarchical discourse surrounding men by repositioning themselves in the male position, taking on the male aspect of the gender role and determining that their breadwinning career course is a natural drive in any gender.[10] This discourse perpetuates the idea that the traditional gender roles are bendable in our social climate.[10]

Decline of the male breadwinner[edit]

In 2013 the UK female employment rate reached 67.2 per cent, the highest since the Office for National Statistics' records began.[11]As women's growing presence in the professional world has risen, as well as support for gender equality, male-female relations in the home have changed, especially the breadwinner paradigm.[12] The breadwinner model was most prevalent during the 20-year period directly after World War II. During this time the economy relied heavily on men to financially support the family and to provide the main source of income, typically relying on women to stay at home and look after the children and undertaking domestic work. 'Women's support for gender specialisation in marriage began to decline rapidly from the late 1970s through to the mid 1980s, this was followed by an interval of stability until the mid 1990s'.[13] 'As increasing proportions of women entered the paid labour market during the latter decades of the 20th century, the family model of a male breadwinner and female homemaker came under significant challenge both as a practice and an ideology'.[14]

There is now agreement in most literature that the breadwinner model, in which men take primary responsibility for earning and women for the unpaid work of care, has been substantially eroded.[14][15]

The Nordic countries in particular have begun to adopt the dual-breadwinner model, with high employment rates among men and women, and a very small difference between men's and women's hours of work. With the exception of Denmark, research by the World Economic Forum has shown that all Nordic countries have closed over 80 percent of the gender gap.[16]

Breadwinner mothers[edit]

The female breadwinner model, otherwise known as 'Breadwinner Moms',[17] takes place when the female provides the main source of income for the family. Recent data from the US Census stated that '40% of all households with children under the age of 18 include mothers who are either the sole or primary source of income for the family'. 37%[18] of these 'Breadwinner Moms'[17] are married mothers who have a higher income than their husbands, and 63%[18] are single mothers.

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Issues with the decline of the breadwinner model[edit]

Although there have been problems identified with the breadwinner model, there have also been issues noted in its decline. The decline of the breadwinner model has been accompanied by an erosion of various dimensions – sexual division of labour, the economic support of family members, and the 'distribution of time and regulation of marriage and parenthood'.[19] With two parents in the workforce, there is a risk that a job could undermine family life, consequently leading to relationship breakdown or adversely affecting original family formation.

A recent study has found that 'women's gains on the economic front may be contributing to a decline in the formation and stability of marriages'. Although one reason for this may be that women with greater earning and economic security have more freedom to leave bad marriages, another possibility could be that men are more hesitant to this change in social norms.[20]

Global variations[edit]

The ideal of the breadwinning model varies across the globe. In Norway, a country with strong gender equality ideology, the breadwinner model is less prevalent.[21] Second generation Pakistani immigrants living in Norway experience the effects of this equality and reinforce women's rights to paid work as opposed to the strict male centric ideologies that generations before them practiced.[21] In the United Kingdom, women's rates of employment decline after becoming a mother, and the male breadwinning model is still constant.[22]

Notes[edit]

  • Crompton, Rosemary (1999). Restructuring gender relations and employment: the decline of the male breadwinner. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN9780198296089.
Book review: Fagan, Colette (March 2001). 'Restructuring gender relations and employment: the decline of the male breadwinner (review)'. Work, Employment & Society. Cambridge Journals. 15 (1): 195–212. doi:10.1017/S0950017001230104. JSTOR23747792.

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  • Creighton, Colin (September 1999). 'The rise and decline of the 'male breadwinner family' in Britain'. Cambridge Journal of Economics. Oxford Journals. 23 (5): 519–541. doi:10.1093/cje/23.5.519. JSTOR23599633.
  • Cunningham, Mick (September 2008). 'Changing attitudes toward the male breadwinner, female homemaker family model: Influences of women's employment and education over the lifecourse'. Social Forces. Oxford Journals. 87 (1): 299–323. doi:10.1353/sof.0.0097. JSTOR20430858.
  • Nagla, Madhu (March 2008). 'Male migration and emerging female headed families: Issues and challenges'. Asian Women. Research Institute of Asian Women (RIAW). 24 (1): 1–23. doi:10.14431/aw.2008.03.24.1.1.
  • Dugan, Emily (19 February 2014). 'Number of women in work in Britain hits record high - but figures show the gender pay gap is growing too'. The Independent. Independent Print Limited. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
  • World Economic Forum (2013). Insight Report: The Global Gender Gap Report 2013(PDF) (Report). World Economic Forum, Switzerland. p. 103. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
  • Lewis, Jane (Summer 2001). 'The decline of the male breadwinner model: The implications for work and care'. Social Politics. Oxford Journals. 8 (2): 152–170. doi:10.1093/sp/8.2.152.
  • Osawa, Mari (Winter 2006). 'The vicious cycle of the 'male breadwinner' model of livelihood security'. Women's Asia 21: Voices from Japan. Asia-Japan Women's Resource Center. 16 (1): 1–5.Pdf.
  • Pascall, Gillian (2010), 'Male breadwinner model', in Pascall, Gillian; et al. (eds.), International encyclopedia of social policy, London New York: Routledge, ISBN9780415576949Text.
  • Sayer, Liana C.; Bianchi, Suzanne M.; Robinson, John P. (July 2004). 'Are parents investing less in children? Trends in mothers' and fathers' time with children'. American Journal of Sociology. The University of Chicago Press. 110 (1): 1–43. doi:10.1086/386270. JSTOR10.1086/386270. S2CID141718530.
  • Thaler, Richard H. (1 June 2013). 'Breadwinner wives and nervous husbands'. The New York Times. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  • Pew Research Center (19 November 2010). The decline of marriage and rise of new families (Report). Pew Research Center. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  • Wang, Wendy; Parker, Kim; Taylor, Paul (29 May 2013). Breadwinner moms, mothers are the sole or primary provider in four-in-ten households with children: Public conflicted about the growing trend(PDF). Pew Research Center (Report). Washington, DC. Archived from the original(PDF) on 6 November 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.

References[edit]

  1. ^'breadwinner'. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Pearson ELT.
  2. ^Bjørnholt, Margunn (2014). 'Changing men, changing times; fathers and sons from an experimental gender equality study'(PDF). The Sociological Review. 62 (2): 295–315. doi:10.1111/1467-954X.12156.
  3. ^Wang, Wendy. 'Breadwinner Moms'. Pew Research Center Social & Demographic Trends. Retrieved 9 June 2017.
  4. ^Seccombe, Wally (Jan 1986). 'Patriarchy Stabilized: The Construction of the Male Breadwinner Wage Norm in Nineteenth-Century Britain'. Social History. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 11 (1): 53–76. doi:10.1080/03071028608567640. JSTOR4285488.
  5. ^Strange, Julie-Marie (December 2012). 'Fatherhood, Providing and Attachment in Late Victorian and Edwardian Working-Class Families'. The Historical Journal. Cambridge University Press. 55 (4): 1007–1027. doi:10.1017/s0018246x12000404.
  6. ^Seccombe
  7. ^'Exhibitions Citizenship Struggle for democracy'. The National Archives. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
  8. ^D'Amico, Ronald (Jun 1983). 'Status Maintenance or Status Competition? Wife's Relative Wages as a Determinant of Labor Supply and Marital Instability'. Social Forces. Oxford University Press. 61 (4): 1186–1205. doi:10.2307/2578286. JSTOR2578286.
  9. ^ abcPascall, Gillian (2010), 'Male breadwinner model', in Pascall, Gillian; et al. (eds.), International encyclopedia of social policy, London New York: Routledge, ISBN9780415576949Text.
  10. ^ abMedved, Caryn E. (2016-07-02). 'The new female breadwinner: discursively doing and un doing gender relations'. Journal of Applied Communication Research. 44 (3): 236–255. doi:10.1080/00909882.2016.1192286. ISSN0090-9882.
  11. ^Dugan, Emily (19 February 2014). 'Number of women in work in Britain hits record high – but figures show the gender pay gap is growing too'. The Independent. Independent Print Limited. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
  12. ^Crompton, Rosemary (1999). Restructuring gender relations and employment: the decline of the male breadwinner. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN9780198296089.
  13. ^Cunningham, Mick (September 2008). 'Changing attitudes toward the male breadwinner, female homemaker family model: Influences of women's employment and education over the lifecourse'. Social Forces. Oxford Journals. 87 (1): 299–323. doi:10.1353/sof.0.0097. JSTOR20430858.
  14. ^ abSayer, Liana C.; Bianchi, Suzanne M.; Robinson, John P. (July 2004). 'Are parents investing less in children? Trends in mothers' and fathers' time with children'. American Journal of Sociology. The University of Chicago Press. 110 (1): 1–43. doi:10.1086/386270. JSTOR10.1086/386270. S2CID141718530.
  15. ^Lewis, Jane (Summer 2001). 'The decline of the male breadwinner model: The implications for work and care'. Social Politics. Oxford Journals. 8 (2): 152–170. doi:10.1093/sp/8.2.152.
  16. ^World Economic Forum (2013). Insight Report: The Global Gender Gap Report 2013(PDF) (Report). World Economic Forum, Switzerland. p. 103. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
  17. ^ abWang, Wendy; Parker, Kim; Taylor, Paul (29 May 2013). Breadwinner moms, mothers are the sole or primary provider in four-in-ten households with children: Public conflicted about the growing trend(PDF). Pew Research Center (Report). Washington, DC. Archived from the original(PDF) on 6 November 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
  18. ^ abPew Research Center (19 November 2010). The decline of marriage and rise of new families (Report). Pew Research Center. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  19. ^Creighton, Colin (September 1999). 'The rise and decline of the 'male breadwinner family' in Britain'. Cambridge Journal of Economics. Oxford Journals. 23 (5): 519–541. doi:10.1093/cje/23.5.519. JSTOR23599633.
  20. ^Thaler, Richard H. (1 June 2013). 'Breadwinner wives and nervous husbands'. The New York Times. Retrieved 18 October 2014.
  21. ^ ab'SAGE Journals: Your gateway to world-class journal research'. doi:10.1177/0038038514560259. hdl:11250/2561247.Cite journal requires journal= (help)
  22. ^Boje, Thomas P. (July 2007). 'Welfare and work. The gendered organisation of work and care in different European Countries'. European Review. 15 (3): 373–395. doi:10.1017/S1062798707000361. ISSN1474-0575.
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Breadwinner_model&oldid=994871615'

The Breadwinneropens with eleven-year-old Parvana and her father at a market in Kabul, Afghanistan. She sits silently with her face covered in a chador scarf while her father, who has difficulty walking and needs her assistance, tries to sell off some of the family's household goods. He also reads letters for a fee, as many people in the country are illiterate.

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Their family also includes Parvana's mother, her older sister Nooria, her younger sister Maryam, and her little brother Ali, all of whom are ordered by law to stay inside their one-room apartment. The Taliban, a group of religious extremists, is in control of Kabul and has enforced strict rules over the city. Women must be covered in burqas at all times, and many forms of expression, like books and music, have been restricted. Parvana’s parents are from old respected Afghan families and have foreign educations, though they have lost most of their wealth and possessions after years of war. Parvana loves school and learning, even though the Taliban has disallowed girls from receiving an education. Her older brother Hossain was killed by a land mine at fourteen.

One day a group of Taliban soldiers breaks into Parvana's house to arrest her father for having a foreign education. Parvana and her mother go to the prison to beg for his freedom, and they are beaten by the guards and told to leave. Because women are not allowed out of the house without a related male, the family is left without a source of income.

Parvana's mother becomes depressed, lying speechless on a thin mattress. Mrs. Weera, a former physical education teacher and friend of Parvana's mother, comes to stay with the family to help run the household. Soon, she and Parvana's mother plan to start a secret school in the house and write a magazine that will collect Afghan women's stories, which they will smuggle to Pakistan to publish. They dress Parvana in her dead brother's clothes so that she can buy groceries and work. Parvana begins to work as a boy and runs her father's stall in the market.

One day, Parvana recognizes the face of another boy in the market. It turns out to be Shauzia, a former classmate of hers who is also disguised as a boy. The two become friends. Shauzia convinces Parvana to make better money with her at the graveyard, where they dig up bones for a man who buys them by the pound. With the money they make, the girls buy bulk cigarettes and chewing gum to sell off of trays. Shauzia confesses that she is saving money so that she can go to France. Parvana dreams of going back to school. One day the girls follow a crowd into a stadium, thinking it is a football match. It turns out to be a public display of punishment. The Taliban are cutting off the hands of men who have been caught stealing. The girls are shocked by what they see.

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Parvana learns that her seventeen-year-old sister Nooria is going to the city of Mazar to get married. The rest of the family will be leaving with her. Parvana stays home with Mrs. Weera. One day after work, it begins to rain. Parvana ducks into a building where she meets a terrified young woman who refuses to speak. Because the woman has no burqa, Parvana waits until nightfall to leave the building and bring her home, where Mrs. Weera cleans the woman up and gives her clean clothes. They learn her name is Homa and that she escaped on a truck from Mazar after the Taliban took it over and shot her family in the street. With no way to contact her own family, Parvana fears that they have met a similar fate.

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Parvana's father returns home, battered and ailing. Slowly, Mrs. Weera nurses him back to health. Parvana and her father make plans to escape Kabul to track down their family in the refugee camps outside Mazar. Mrs. Weera and Homa plan to travel to Pakistan. Shauzia announces that she too is leaving with some nomads. The girls plan to meet in twenty years at the top of the Eiffel Tower. Parvana leaves Kabul leaning against her father in the back of the truck. She wonders what the future will bring as she looks at the snow glistening on the top of 'Mount Parvana,' a mountain in the distance that her father had, earlier in the narrative, named after her.